GH-51256: [Dev][Archery] Enable Docker debug output by default

[limadog9]

Rationale for this change

Closes #51256.

Docker build logs are useful during local development, but archery docker currently requires --debug or ARCHERY_DEBUG=1 to show them. Enable this output by default for Docker commands, as requested in the issue.

What changes are included in this PR?

Distinguish an unspecified debug option from an explicit setting. Default Docker commands to debug output unless --quiet is supplied, while keeping other commands’ default unchanged. Explicit --debug and ARCHERY_DEBUG values retain their existing behavior, including ARCHERY_DEBUG=0 as an opt-out.

Update the CLI help and Docker development documentation, and add CLI regression coverage for the resulting Docker commands, build progress flags, logging, quiet mode, and environment overrides.

Are these changes tested?

• Full Archery suite: cd dev/archery && python -m pytest -q archery — 131 passed, 1 skipped (integration test disabled by default).
• The regression for Docker’s default output fails before the implementation change and passes afterward.
• Python formatting, flake8, and Sphinx lint pass using the repository configurations and hook versions.
• archery docker check-config and archery crossbow check-config pass.

Are there any user-facing changes?

Docker commands show debug logs and plain build progress by default on supported platforms. Use ARCHERY_DEBUG=0 to disable debug output, or archery --quiet docker ... to silence executed commands as well.

• GitHub Issue: [CI][Dev][Archery] Default ARCHERY_DEBUG to True on archery docker commands #51256

[github-actions]

⚠️ GitHub issue #51256 has been automatically assigned in GitHub to PR creator.